How Participation in Music Translates Into Academic Success
“Cut, reset!” The members of the marching band run, not walk, to their places from the previous drill set. After yet another repetition of the same eight measures, directions are given: “Cut, reset!” West Ranch High School band director, Jason Marshall, observes as a herd of one hundred and fifty music students quickly form order among themselves and proceed to go into attention with their horns up. Eight measures pass again, and like clockwork, directions are given once more: “Cut, reset!”
With such a degree of discipline and attention for detail, it’s no surprise that researchers have found that “students in exemplary music education programs scored higher on both English and mathematics standardized tests than their counterparts who did not have this [instruction]” (Johnson, 2006). In addition, and perhaps a little more surprising, “music participation was the only activity shown to correlate significantly with academic progress. Neither athletics nor any other extracurricular activity showed similar results” (Johnson.) Going off of these statistics, it is fair to say that music students in particular acquire a unique set of skills that gives them this head in the academic world. For this study, I will be approaching these claims by observing a high school music discourse community that I was once a part of, the West Ranch High School marching band. By looking at the way in which WRHS band members interact and at the goals in which this community aims to reach, I will attempt to answer the following question: how do the genres of learning and communication presented in high school music programs set students up for success in academia? To find an answer, I will pinpoint the unique skills that students acquire by participating in music, and study how these skills benefit them in the classroom setting.
With such a degree of discipline and attention for detail, it’s no surprise that researchers have found that “students in exemplary music education programs scored higher on both English and mathematics standardized tests than their counterparts who did not have this [instruction]” (Johnson, 2006). In addition, and perhaps a little more surprising, “music participation was the only activity shown to correlate significantly with academic progress. Neither athletics nor any other extracurricular activity showed similar results” (Johnson.) Going off of these statistics, it is fair to say that music students in particular acquire a unique set of skills that gives them this head in the academic world. For this study, I will be approaching these claims by observing a high school music discourse community that I was once a part of, the West Ranch High School marching band. By looking at the way in which WRHS band members interact and at the goals in which this community aims to reach, I will attempt to answer the following question: how do the genres of learning and communication presented in high school music programs set students up for success in academia? To find an answer, I will pinpoint the unique skills that students acquire by participating in music, and study how these skills benefit them in the classroom setting.
The West Ranch High School Marching Band
First, I will examine the ways in which WRHSMB functions as a discourse community. According to University of Michigan Professor John Swales, there are “six defining characteristics that will be necessary and sufficient for identifying a group of individuals as a discourse community” (Swales, 1990). Below are Swales’ six points and how the WRHSMB fits into each based upon my prior experience in this community:
1. "A discourse community has a broadly agreed set of common public goals." | WRHSMB's Goals: Produce and perform a field show at a high level, achieve an understanding of musical intricacies (i.e. ensemble balance, dynamics, consistent rhythm, degree of emotion/expression) |
2. "A discourse community has mechanisms of intercommunication among its members." | Intercommunication includes: talk of music, friendship/talk among band members, feedback (teacher-to-student), communication of the lesson at hand (learning-based, teacher taught) |
3. "A discourse community uses its participatory mechanisms primarily to provide information and feedback." | Means of Participation/Feedback: membership dues, class enrollment, receiving music learning opportunities |
4. "A discourse community utilizes and hence possesses one or more genres in the communicative furtherance of its aims." | Genres of Communication: text messages, e-mail, student-to-teacher interaction, teacher-to-student instruction, music as communication |
5. "A discourse community has acquired some specific lexis." | Specific Lexis: “Squeeze the grape” = "Squeeze your butt to achieve the best marching posture” "Dot” = A band member’s place in a marching formation/spot on the marching field |
6. "A discourse community has a threshold level of members with a suitable degree of relevant content and expertise." | Relevant content and expertise: experience in a music program, knowledge of the workings of music, knowledge of marching technique, knowledge of band etiquette, knowledge of the workings of a musical ensemble |
By and large, Swale’s six characteristics of a discourse community apply to the West Ranch HS marching band in two broader areas: 1) shared goals and 2) means of communication. Specifically, Swale’s characteristics numbered 1 and 6 are goal-oriented and characteristics 2, 3, 4, and 5 are communication-based (shown in graph above). With these main areas of study, I can go about pondering how music students apply their musical abilities to their outside classes.
West Ranch HS Marching Band’s Main Goals
The WRHSMB as a group strives towards multiple goals in the course of a season. Such goals can be on a small scale, like the goal of making it through an individual practice, or can refer to the bigger picture of achieving a high level of musical performance, which translates into high ranks at competitions. In an interview with WRHSMB member Tommy Weber, I received some help in outlining just how the WRHSMB goes about achieving its goals as a discourse community. He described WRHSMB as “a group [that] molds together with time and experience” Just as how a team “molds together” through shared values, all one hundred and fifty members of the WRHSMB are “molded together” in the sense that they strive for these common goals. At the end of the day, WRHSMB functions as a team, and this camaraderie helps the group in achieving the goal of carrying out an exceptional performance.
Communication Between West HS Marching Band Members
The WRHSMB team is made up of a few specific roles that each have their own purpose in setting the precedent for communication among band members. The “top” role belongs to the adult members of the band – the teachers– who carry out musical instruction and aid in the acquirement of students’ skills. Just below the adult members are student leaders – section leaders, captains, and drum majors. These students serve as role models and encourage their peers to reach the band’s goal at hand. Everyone else in the WRHSMB is a student member, and these members contribute by coming to practice ready to put in work towards the end goal. These three “positions” share close communication with one another, and this in turn creates a sense of direction for the band in going about achieving a high quality field show.
The teachers of the band “initiate” the communication between band community members by giving instruction and passing knowledge onto the student members of the band. Once instruction has been communicated, student members act by putting this information/feedback into practice. To aid in this process, student leaders serve as examples for other band members, and soon the whole band is able to carry out the information given at a high level. As student members continue to soak up information and apply it to their thoughts and actions during band practice, they are gaining skill sets that are applicable in disciplines outside of the music world. As a community, the students of the WRHSMB gain similar skillsets while striving to achieve the program’s goals and responding to the group’s intercommunication.
West Ranch HS Marching Band’s Main Goals
The WRHSMB as a group strives towards multiple goals in the course of a season. Such goals can be on a small scale, like the goal of making it through an individual practice, or can refer to the bigger picture of achieving a high level of musical performance, which translates into high ranks at competitions. In an interview with WRHSMB member Tommy Weber, I received some help in outlining just how the WRHSMB goes about achieving its goals as a discourse community. He described WRHSMB as “a group [that] molds together with time and experience” Just as how a team “molds together” through shared values, all one hundred and fifty members of the WRHSMB are “molded together” in the sense that they strive for these common goals. At the end of the day, WRHSMB functions as a team, and this camaraderie helps the group in achieving the goal of carrying out an exceptional performance.
Communication Between West HS Marching Band Members
The WRHSMB team is made up of a few specific roles that each have their own purpose in setting the precedent for communication among band members. The “top” role belongs to the adult members of the band – the teachers– who carry out musical instruction and aid in the acquirement of students’ skills. Just below the adult members are student leaders – section leaders, captains, and drum majors. These students serve as role models and encourage their peers to reach the band’s goal at hand. Everyone else in the WRHSMB is a student member, and these members contribute by coming to practice ready to put in work towards the end goal. These three “positions” share close communication with one another, and this in turn creates a sense of direction for the band in going about achieving a high quality field show.
The teachers of the band “initiate” the communication between band community members by giving instruction and passing knowledge onto the student members of the band. Once instruction has been communicated, student members act by putting this information/feedback into practice. To aid in this process, student leaders serve as examples for other band members, and soon the whole band is able to carry out the information given at a high level. As student members continue to soak up information and apply it to their thoughts and actions during band practice, they are gaining skill sets that are applicable in disciplines outside of the music world. As a community, the students of the WRHSMB gain similar skillsets while striving to achieve the program’s goals and responding to the group’s intercommunication.
Skills Gained in High School Music
In the West Ranch High School music program, orchestra, band, marching band, jazz band, and choir are all set up as “graded classes.” Like traditional core subject classes, these classes practice an infrastructure in which the students acquire new skills while the instructor provides guidance. This passing of knowledge between teachers and students is one of the main mechanisms of communication within high school music discourse communities, and such communication is what allows music students to learn skills that help them succeed academically.
Main Points that Music Teachers Communicate to Students
In Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, he lists three main domains in which students learn: the cognitive domain which involves thought, the affective domain which is related to emotions/feelings, and the psychomotor domain which refers to the practice of physical/kinesthetic acts (Bloom, 1956). These three domains coexist with one another in the classroom environment, but some more or less than others depending on the subject at hand. In a subject like mathematics, “[teachers often] avoid including affective objectives stating that their areas are not emotional” (Owen, n.d.), while cognitive objectives make up a majority of math lesson plans and standardized tests (around 83.3% (Gierl, 1997).) In contrast, music exercises the three domains more equally as Barbara Kafol found in her study regarding lesson plans made by music educators: “Of the total 2142 musical objectives analyzed in 186 lesson plans, 523 (24%) were planned in the affective domain, 889 (42%) in the psychomotor domain and 730 (34%) in the cognitive domain.” While students in math class work in the cognitive domain to go about solving problems, students in music class not only work in the cognitive domain to go about playing a piece, but they also must work in the affective domain to understand the purpose and emotional setting of the piece, and in the psychomotor domain to translate thought into the manipulation of a musical instrument or vocal chords. In short, music educators communicate three general ideas to students in their classes, and through my experience in high school music, I’ve made connections regarding how these ideas fall into Bloom’s Taxonomy:
1. The Affective Domain: Music is filled with emotion, and is a mean of communicating this emotion.i.e. “Class, this piece is a requiem, not a happy march. Please adjust the way that you’re playing in order to fit this tone.”
2. The Psychomotor Domain: Performing music requires hand-eye and muscle coordination. i.e. “Dylan, try adding the resonance key with your pinky finger to adjust the pitch on your high E, at the moment it’s sounding pretty sharp.”
3. The Cognitive Domain: Performing musical literature requires a degree of focus in order to implement many elements at once.i.e. “Pay attention more on the written dynamics this time through, class.”
Music educators communicate information regarding each of these three points multiple times throughout a class period in order to not only perform a musical piece well as an ensemble, but also to stress the topics/skills that students should be exercising and keeping in mind whenever they perform music in general.
Main Skills that Students Gain from Music Education
Many skills that students gain from music education fall under one of Bloom’s three domains. In the affective domain, music stimulates emotional sensitivity, relaxation (Hallam, 2010), and self-expression (Scripp, 2003). In the psychomotor domain, music students learn fine motor coordination (Hallam, 2010). Cognitively, music students acquire skills in the areas of memory (Scripp, 2003), critical thinking (Eisner, 1985), problem solving (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996), and concentration (Hallam, 2010).
Additionally, WRHSMB member Tommy Weber gave me some scope on the skills that he’s gained through his experience in music: “Since I’m a percussionist, my sense of rhythm has improved and I have gained a greater attention to detail. Most of all, band has demanded self-discipline which has helped me to focus. By keeping on track and prioritizing, my overall academics have improved.” Tommy gives confirmation of attaining skills in the psychomotor and cognitive domains, in addition to mentioning the application of these skills in his academics.
On a narrower margin, Tommy’s input also sheds light on how different “roles” within a musical ensemble require attention to detail in varying areas. “Being a percussionist,” Tommy says, gives him a “greater attention to detail,” which perhaps comes from the fact that percussionists must perform intricate rhythms and know how to handle a variety of instruments more so than other instrumental sections. In another example, wind instrumentalists must know how to control their breathing throughout a piece which requires “great attention to detail” in regards to how and when they take a breath in order to continue playing. Though music students play different “roles” within their ensembles and carry out attentions towards varying aspects that come with these roles, music students are united in the sense that all of their roles require such focus and self-discipline
Another skill in particular that students gain through music education is a heightened working memory. Elyse George investigates this phenomenon on a neural level in her article “Music Training and Working Memory: An ERP Study”: “the superior ability of musicians to organize and maintain a rhythm's temporal structure [is] related to the greater involvement of the prefrontal cortex mediating working memory” (George, 2011). Especially in Tommy’s case as a percussionist, repetitive actions that require a degree of cognitive thought such as interpreting rhythms in a musical piece develop one’s working memory. Scientifically, as musicians exercise the prefrontal cortex of their brains through musical tasks, they develop a higher-functioning short-term memory than that of non-musicians.
Main Points that Music Teachers Communicate to Students
In Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, he lists three main domains in which students learn: the cognitive domain which involves thought, the affective domain which is related to emotions/feelings, and the psychomotor domain which refers to the practice of physical/kinesthetic acts (Bloom, 1956). These three domains coexist with one another in the classroom environment, but some more or less than others depending on the subject at hand. In a subject like mathematics, “[teachers often] avoid including affective objectives stating that their areas are not emotional” (Owen, n.d.), while cognitive objectives make up a majority of math lesson plans and standardized tests (around 83.3% (Gierl, 1997).) In contrast, music exercises the three domains more equally as Barbara Kafol found in her study regarding lesson plans made by music educators: “Of the total 2142 musical objectives analyzed in 186 lesson plans, 523 (24%) were planned in the affective domain, 889 (42%) in the psychomotor domain and 730 (34%) in the cognitive domain.” While students in math class work in the cognitive domain to go about solving problems, students in music class not only work in the cognitive domain to go about playing a piece, but they also must work in the affective domain to understand the purpose and emotional setting of the piece, and in the psychomotor domain to translate thought into the manipulation of a musical instrument or vocal chords. In short, music educators communicate three general ideas to students in their classes, and through my experience in high school music, I’ve made connections regarding how these ideas fall into Bloom’s Taxonomy:
1. The Affective Domain: Music is filled with emotion, and is a mean of communicating this emotion.i.e. “Class, this piece is a requiem, not a happy march. Please adjust the way that you’re playing in order to fit this tone.”
2. The Psychomotor Domain: Performing music requires hand-eye and muscle coordination. i.e. “Dylan, try adding the resonance key with your pinky finger to adjust the pitch on your high E, at the moment it’s sounding pretty sharp.”
3. The Cognitive Domain: Performing musical literature requires a degree of focus in order to implement many elements at once.i.e. “Pay attention more on the written dynamics this time through, class.”
Music educators communicate information regarding each of these three points multiple times throughout a class period in order to not only perform a musical piece well as an ensemble, but also to stress the topics/skills that students should be exercising and keeping in mind whenever they perform music in general.
Main Skills that Students Gain from Music Education
Many skills that students gain from music education fall under one of Bloom’s three domains. In the affective domain, music stimulates emotional sensitivity, relaxation (Hallam, 2010), and self-expression (Scripp, 2003). In the psychomotor domain, music students learn fine motor coordination (Hallam, 2010). Cognitively, music students acquire skills in the areas of memory (Scripp, 2003), critical thinking (Eisner, 1985), problem solving (Csikzentmihalyi, 1996), and concentration (Hallam, 2010).
Additionally, WRHSMB member Tommy Weber gave me some scope on the skills that he’s gained through his experience in music: “Since I’m a percussionist, my sense of rhythm has improved and I have gained a greater attention to detail. Most of all, band has demanded self-discipline which has helped me to focus. By keeping on track and prioritizing, my overall academics have improved.” Tommy gives confirmation of attaining skills in the psychomotor and cognitive domains, in addition to mentioning the application of these skills in his academics.
On a narrower margin, Tommy’s input also sheds light on how different “roles” within a musical ensemble require attention to detail in varying areas. “Being a percussionist,” Tommy says, gives him a “greater attention to detail,” which perhaps comes from the fact that percussionists must perform intricate rhythms and know how to handle a variety of instruments more so than other instrumental sections. In another example, wind instrumentalists must know how to control their breathing throughout a piece which requires “great attention to detail” in regards to how and when they take a breath in order to continue playing. Though music students play different “roles” within their ensembles and carry out attentions towards varying aspects that come with these roles, music students are united in the sense that all of their roles require such focus and self-discipline
Another skill in particular that students gain through music education is a heightened working memory. Elyse George investigates this phenomenon on a neural level in her article “Music Training and Working Memory: An ERP Study”: “the superior ability of musicians to organize and maintain a rhythm's temporal structure [is] related to the greater involvement of the prefrontal cortex mediating working memory” (George, 2011). Especially in Tommy’s case as a percussionist, repetitive actions that require a degree of cognitive thought such as interpreting rhythms in a musical piece develop one’s working memory. Scientifically, as musicians exercise the prefrontal cortex of their brains through musical tasks, they develop a higher-functioning short-term memory than that of non-musicians.
How Skills Gained from Music Translate into the Classroom (Genres of Learning)
As Tommy mentioned previously, many of the skills that students acquire through music find applications for these skills in their other classes. Tommy referred to the self-discipline that he attained as a source of “focus” in his classes, and he is not the only one to think this way. In University of Kansas Professor Becky Eason’s document “Music Makes Us Baseline Research Report,” she studies the ways in which participation in music benefits high school students. Upon interviewing a handful of kids from Metro Nashville Public School district, she comes to a conclusion regarding the way in which their “music skills transfer” to their academics: “[the] most commonly mentioned [skill] was Mathematics; students regularly expressed the belief that music provided a foundation for both the discipline and skills involved in learning math” (Eason, 2013). Referring back to the proportions of Bloom’s taxonomy present in music versus math, music students exercise all three domains in fairly equal proportions during the course of music class. Math on the other hand requires an overwhelming amount of cognitive activity in comparison to the other two domains. With this being said, a great deal of self-discipline is required in math in order for students to exercise such a magnitude of cognition, and since music students practice such discipline while multi-tasking in their music classes, they are able to succeed in math, and arguably more so than their non-musical counterparts.
In “A Comparison of the Academic Achievement of Students Who Have a Musical Background Versus Students Who do not Have a Musical Background,” Professor Cobb of the University of Mississippi examined the ACT scores of music versus non-music students and concluded with statistical significance that “individuals with a musical background had significantly higher ACT scores on the English, reading, math and science sub-tests” (Cobb, 1997). Based on heightened success on standardized tests, it can be said that music students benefit academically from a specific skill set gained from their musical practices. In addition, going off of the positive effect of discipline on students in the math classroom, academic success from self-discipline seemingly takes place in not only math, but in many subject areas.
In “A Comparison of the Academic Achievement of Students Who Have a Musical Background Versus Students Who do not Have a Musical Background,” Professor Cobb of the University of Mississippi examined the ACT scores of music versus non-music students and concluded with statistical significance that “individuals with a musical background had significantly higher ACT scores on the English, reading, math and science sub-tests” (Cobb, 1997). Based on heightened success on standardized tests, it can be said that music students benefit academically from a specific skill set gained from their musical practices. In addition, going off of the positive effect of discipline on students in the math classroom, academic success from self-discipline seemingly takes place in not only math, but in many subject areas.
Additional Factors of High School Music that Benefits Academic Performance (Genres of Communication)
Beyond Bloom’s three domains, music students manage to achieve in academia based upon factors that come with participation in a discourse community. As one student from the Metro Nashville Public School District notes: “I like band because you get connected because you all like to play something, and then it just makes you friends” (Eason, 2013). A discourse community is defined by the way in which members communicate and reach goals, and as this student illustrates, an environment in which members share similar interests is bound to spark friendship. Tommy confirmed this idea during our interview, in which he made a point to note: “I socialize with my band peers a lot … we are like a family!” Based on the two students’ statements regarding friendship within their respective discourse communities, companionship seems to benefit each of their experiences in not only high school music, but in school in general.
In the study by Shannon M. Suldo, “American High School Students’ Perceptions of Determinants of Life Satisfaction,” she questions which factors of life influence happiness among adolescents. According to her work, “friends were brought up by 80 % of the participants. Students most frequently reported that the quality and reliability of their friendships (i.e., friend support) impacted their happiness" (Suldo, 2014). Relating this to music students, the fact that students are able to find meaningful friendships within music discourse communities helps them find happiness. Through my own experiences in high school music, I can relate to such happiness through my band friendships, and this happiness even affects me today as a college student! The bonds that one makes in a tight-knit discourse community such as band in particular last beyond “one’s time” in that community, and the bonds and memories that I made through music continue to hold a warm presence in my life.
In addition to friendships, studies have shown that students find such happiness from the sole act of participating in extracurricular activities to begin with: “Almost two-thirds of adolescents reported [that] some aspect of their use of free time influenced their life satisfaction appraisals. Most commonly, youth described their involvement in structured extracurricular activities, such as sports or school clubs, as having a facilitative effect on their life satisfaction level.” The happiness associated with being a part of, in our case of interest, a high school music program, in turn leads to successful life outcomes among students in participation as discovered by University of California, Riverside professor Sonja Lyubomirsky: “… happiness is associated with and precedes numerous successful outcomes, as well as behaviors paralleling success” (Lyubomirsky, 2005). When referring to music students, the happiness students receive from their participation in music and from their friends that arose from such participation is an important factor towards their academic success. In my own case, knowing that I have such friends who will always have my back keeps me motivated to continue to achieve academically at the University level.
Another factor that seems to help music students achieve in the classroom has to do with classroom attendance. In Eason’s study, “students consistently report that getting to participate in music class inspires them to come to school, even on days when they would rather not.” (Eason, 2013). Number studies also reflect this claim, as “in general, attendance rates increase from non-music students and the more music a student takes, the more attendance rates increase.” (Eason). Given the fact that students attend school to learn, high attendance rates give students more opportunity to succeed since they aren’t missing material covered in class. Ultimately, the intercommunication of music students within their discourse communities leads to friendships and “something to look forward to at school”, leading to increased happiness which produces heightened academic success.
In the study by Shannon M. Suldo, “American High School Students’ Perceptions of Determinants of Life Satisfaction,” she questions which factors of life influence happiness among adolescents. According to her work, “friends were brought up by 80 % of the participants. Students most frequently reported that the quality and reliability of their friendships (i.e., friend support) impacted their happiness" (Suldo, 2014). Relating this to music students, the fact that students are able to find meaningful friendships within music discourse communities helps them find happiness. Through my own experiences in high school music, I can relate to such happiness through my band friendships, and this happiness even affects me today as a college student! The bonds that one makes in a tight-knit discourse community such as band in particular last beyond “one’s time” in that community, and the bonds and memories that I made through music continue to hold a warm presence in my life.
In addition to friendships, studies have shown that students find such happiness from the sole act of participating in extracurricular activities to begin with: “Almost two-thirds of adolescents reported [that] some aspect of their use of free time influenced their life satisfaction appraisals. Most commonly, youth described their involvement in structured extracurricular activities, such as sports or school clubs, as having a facilitative effect on their life satisfaction level.” The happiness associated with being a part of, in our case of interest, a high school music program, in turn leads to successful life outcomes among students in participation as discovered by University of California, Riverside professor Sonja Lyubomirsky: “… happiness is associated with and precedes numerous successful outcomes, as well as behaviors paralleling success” (Lyubomirsky, 2005). When referring to music students, the happiness students receive from their participation in music and from their friends that arose from such participation is an important factor towards their academic success. In my own case, knowing that I have such friends who will always have my back keeps me motivated to continue to achieve academically at the University level.
Another factor that seems to help music students achieve in the classroom has to do with classroom attendance. In Eason’s study, “students consistently report that getting to participate in music class inspires them to come to school, even on days when they would rather not.” (Eason, 2013). Number studies also reflect this claim, as “in general, attendance rates increase from non-music students and the more music a student takes, the more attendance rates increase.” (Eason). Given the fact that students attend school to learn, high attendance rates give students more opportunity to succeed since they aren’t missing material covered in class. Ultimately, the intercommunication of music students within their discourse communities leads to friendships and “something to look forward to at school”, leading to increased happiness which produces heightened academic success.
Conclusion
The study revealed ways in which high school music students are set up for high levels of academic success through means of communication and learning within their communities. Music educators teach and communicate skills to music students. In turn, the students apply the communicated information in the music classroom, and with practice, develop skill sets applicable to other academic subjects. Due to the fairly even distribution of Bloom’s Taxonomy among learning objectives in a music classroom, the skills that students acquire from music fall in all three domains: cognitive (thought-based), psychomotor (physical-based), and attentive (emotion-based). In addition, since music students are exercising skills in all three domains at once while they play an instrument in an ensemble setting, they are able to develop an incredible sense of self-discipline and focus which contributes to their success in academia. Lastly, students within music discourse communities are likely to form friendships due to common interests, and thus, these students have increased levels of mental wellness/happiness, and this also translates to academic success. Through the active intercommunication within high school music discourse communities, students acquire applicable skills and valuable companionships that will help them achieve greatness.
Work Sited
B.S. Bloom. A Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (Handbook 1, Cognitive Domain). David McKay Company, New York (1956).
Harper Collins, New York, NY (1996).
Cobb, T.A. (1997). A Comparison of the Academic Achievement of Students Who Have a Musical Background Versus Students Who do not Have a Musical Background. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Mississippi, Oxford, 1997. Dissertation Abstracts
Csikzentmihalyi, M. Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention.
Eason B.J.A., and Johnson C.M. Music Makes Us Baseline Research Report. Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools. 2013.
George, Elyse M., and Donna Coch. “Music Training and Working Memory: An ERP Study”. Neuropsychologia, vol. 49, no. 5, Apr. 2011, pp. 1083–1094., www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0028393211000613?via%3Dihub.
Gierl, Mark J. “Comparing Cognitive Representations of Test Developers and Students on a Mathematics Test with Bloom’s Taxonomy”. Journal of Educational Research, vol. 91, no.1, Oct. 1997., http://web.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=f85d6950-b047-4028-a20c-622589649140%40sessionmgr120&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=648608&db=a9h.
Hallam, S. “The power of music: Its impact on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people.” International Journal of Music Education, vol. 28, no. 3, 2010, pp. 269-290
Johnson, Christopher M., and Jenny E.. Memmott. “Examination of Relationships between Participation in School Music Programs of Differing Quality and Standardized Test Results”. Journal of Research in Music Education, vol. 54, no. 4, Jan. 2006, pp. 293–307., web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=54f6180f-7ea4-4e92-98fa-982b79347d3e%40sessionmgr4010&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=25314861&db=a9h.
Kafol, Barbara S., et al. “Analysis of Music Education Objectives in Learning Domains”. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2015, pp. 95–104., www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877042815023290?via%3Dihub.
Lyubomirsky, Sonja., et al. “The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?”. Psychological Bulletin, 2005, Vol. 131(6), pp. 803-855.
Owen, Leslie. “Three Domains of Learning – Cognitive, Affective, Psychomotor”. n.d. https://thesecondprinciple.com/instructional-design/threedomainsoflearning/.
Scripp, L. (2003). “Critical links, next steps: an evolving conception of music and learning in public school education”. Journal for Learning Through music/online/. Retrieved on 27th November, 2017, from http://music-in-education.org/articles/2-AF.pdf.
Suldo, Shannon M. “American High School Students’ Perceptions of Determinants of Life Satisfaction”. Social Indicator Research, vol. 118, no. 2, Sept. 2014, pp. 485–514., rd.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11205-013-0436-2.
Swales, J. (1990). The concept of discourse community. Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings.
Harper Collins, New York, NY (1996).
Cobb, T.A. (1997). A Comparison of the Academic Achievement of Students Who Have a Musical Background Versus Students Who do not Have a Musical Background. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Mississippi, Oxford, 1997. Dissertation Abstracts
Csikzentmihalyi, M. Creativity: Flow and the Psychology of Discovery and Invention.
Eason B.J.A., and Johnson C.M. Music Makes Us Baseline Research Report. Metropolitan Nashville Public Schools. 2013.
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